The Farah Saeed Project

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Bladder Cancer

How Is Bladder Cancer Diagnosed?

NHS Guidelines

Bladder Cancer UK guidelinesDownload

NICE Guidelines

NICE guidelines for Bladder canceDownload

Gentle Reminder

GP Consultation

GP Consultation: What If It Is Haematuria?

GP Consultation: What If It Is Not Visible Haematuria?

Flow Diagram of Urine test
Blood in the glomerulus
Urine-colour-chartDownload

Further Urine Tests: Cytology

Red blood cell casts observed under the microscope.
A cytopathologist observes each cell from the urine sample under a microscope. This helps prevent the need of operations (John Hopkins, 2026)
The accuracy of cytology testing is limited as it has low sensitivity.
Below 50% detection rate. Additional tests needed to confirm whether there are cancerous cells (Min, 2026)

Other causes of haematuria other than the bladder

Images And Video Resources

  • Stricture, stenosis of the ureter, narrowing of the lumen from the kidney to the bladder. Vector medical illustration

Haematuria Clinic: Initial Consultation and Investigations

Haematuria Clinic: Intravenous Urography

The presence of a bladder tumour via ultrasound with the size > 1 cm (Min, 2026)
Small tumours < 1 cm may not always be observed using IVU or ultrasound. Cystoscopy is needed even if there is a negative result for cancer via IVU or ultrasound. (Min, 2026)

Haematuria Clinic: Cystoscopy

Cystoscopy examination
Cystoscopy
Photodynamic Diagnosis
Narrow Band Imaging

Haematuria Clinic: Urinary Biomarkers

(Oyaert et al., 2025)

Protein-based Urinary Biomarkers

Gene to Protein
Functions of Survivin. The T shape is evading.

DNA-based Urinary Biomarkers

mRNA-based Urinary Biomarkers

qPCR method
Importance of prognosis
Cell proliferation
Other presentations of cell proliferation
Difference between apoptosis and necrosis
Exosomes in the cell
Examples of exosomes
ELISA

Combined test Urinary Biomarkers

Haematuria Clinic: What if it is bladder cancer?

Comparing CT with MRI
Throcacic Medical imaging
TNM staging bladder cancerDownload
Differences between CT and PET scan.
Bone examination

Diagnosis Of Other Types Of Bladder Cancer

Description of Lynch Syndrome
Description of mismatch repair

References

Abazari, O., Shahidi, M., Dayati, P., Valizadeh, S., Vahidi, S., Tafti, M.A., and Zavarreza, J. (2025). Study of urine-based mRNA biomarkers for early detection of nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC). Urologic Oncology Seminars and Original Investigations, 43(6), pp.393.e9–393.e17. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urolonc.2024.12.273.

Action Bladder UK (2025). Diagnosis Available at: https://actionbladdercanceruk.org/diagnosis/ (Accessed: 8th January 2026)

Cassidy, J., Bissett, D., Spene, R. and Payne, M. (2010). Oxford Handbook of Oncology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hubbard, J.G. and Amin, M. (1977). Pseudohematuria. Urology, [online] 10(3), pp.190–192. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-4295(77)90056-5.

John Hopkins (2026) The Pathologist’s Role Available at: https://pathology.jhu.edu/bladder-cancer/the-pathologists-role (Accessed: 17th January 2026)

‌Knipe, H. (2025). Renal papillary necrosis. Available at:  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/renal-papillary-necrosis (Accessed: 11th January 2026)

Lang, K., Köhler, C.U., Wichert, K., Deix, T., Bartsch, G., Sommer, G., Lübke, C., Florian Roghmann, Reike, M.J., Harald Krentel, Katja Engellandt, Sven Schiermeier, Menke, V., Joachim Noldus, Behrens, T., Brüning, T. and Käfferlein, H.U. (2024). Urinary DNA-methylation and protein biomarkers identify urothelial carcinoma among other genitourinary diseases and cancer-free individuals. Journal of Translational Medicine, 22(1), pp.1061–1061. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-024-05844-x.

Min, C.C. (2026). Bladder Cancer. Available at: https://ccmurology.com/diseases/bladder-cancer/ (Accessed: 17th January 2026)

National Health Service (2016) Guidelines for the Management of Bladder Cancer. Available at: https://www.england.nhs.uk/mids-east/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2018/05/guidelines-for-the-management-of-bladder-cancer.pdf (Accessed: 11th January 2026)

National Health Service (2025). Overview: Bladder stones. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/bladder-stones/ (Accessed: 11th January 2026)

National Health Service (2025). Overview: Kidney Stones. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/kidney-stones/ (Accessed: 11th January 2026)

National Institute for Care and Excellence (2021). Bladder cancer: diagnosis and management. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng2/evidence/full-guideline-pdf-3744109 (Accessed: 11th January 2026)

National Kidney Foundation (2026). Thin Basement Membrane Disease. Available at: https://www.kidney.org/kidney-topics/thin-basement-membrane-disease  (Accessed: 11th January 2026)

Noble, L. (2026). Optimising the bladder cancer pathway: reducing delays and improving outcomes. Available at: https://www.ucc-today.com/journals/issue/launch-edition/article/optimising-the-bladder-cancer-pathway-reducing-delays-and-improving-outcomes (Accessed: 8th January 2026)

Oyaert, M., Van Praet, C., Delrue, C., & Speeckaert, M. M. (2025). Novel Urinary Biomarkers for the Detection of Bladder Cancer. Cancers, 17(8), 1283. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers17081283

SUNY Upstate Medical University (2026). What is a PET/CT and why is it done? Available at: https://www.upstate.edu/ura/pet-ct-scan.php (Accessed: 18th January 2026)

Tidy, C.  (2025). Urolithiasis. Available at: https://patient.info/doctor/general-surgery/urinary-tract-stones-urolithiasis (Accessed: 11th January 2026)

Updated January 2026 Next Review May 2028

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